<p>Preface xi</p> <p>Contributors xiii</p> <p><b>1 Introduction to Dense Phase Carbon Dioxide Technology 1<br /> </b><i>Giovanna Ferrentino and Murat O. Balaban</i></p> <p><b>2 Thermodynamics of Solutions of CO2 with Effects of Pressure and Temperature 5<br /> </b><i>Sara Spilimbergo and Ireneo Kikic</i></p> <p>2.1 Introduction 5</p> <p>2.2 Thermodynamics of liquid–vapour phase equilibria 6</p> <p>2.2.1 Calculation of g 10</p> <p>2.2.2 Calculation of f 13</p> <p>2.2.3 Calculation of the liquid–vapour phase equilibria 20</p> <p>2.3 Application to CO2–H2O system model 24</p> <p>2.3.1 Non-electrolyte models 24</p> <p>2.3.2 Electrolyte models 26</p> <p>2.4 Thermodynamics of solid–vapour equilibria 28</p> <p>2.5 List of symbols 31</p> <p><b>3 Experimental Measurement of Carbon Dioxide Solubility 37<br /> </b><i>Giovanna Ferrentino, Thelma Calix, Massimo Poletto, Giovanna Ferrari, and Murat O. Balaban</i></p> <p>3.1 Introduction 37</p> <p>3.2 Solubility of carbon dioxide in water 38</p> <p>3.2.1 Definition and brief review of early studies 38</p> <p>3.2.2 Physical properties associated with the phase diagram of carbon dioxide 41</p> <p>3.2.3 Effect of pressure and temperature on carbon dioxide solubility in water 42</p> <p>3.3 Experimental methods for carbon dioxide solubility measurement 45</p> <p>3.3.1 Analytical methods 46</p> <p>3.3.2 Synthetic methods 55</p> <p>3.4 Review of experimental results 58</p> <p>3.5 Conclusions 66</p> <p><b>4 Effects of Dense Phase Carbon Dioxide on Vegetative Cells 67<br /> </b><i>Osman Erkmen</i></p> <p>4.1 Introduction 67</p> <p>4.2 Gases used for inactivating microorganisms 68</p> <p>4.3 Effect of DPCD on vegetative microorganisms 69</p> <p>4.3.1 Effect of DPCD on bacterial cells 69</p> <p>4.3.2 Effect of DPCD on vegetative forms of fungi, pests and viruses 73</p> <p>4.4 Factors affecting the sensitivity of microorganisms to DPCD 74</p> <p>4.4.1 Effect of CO2 physical states 75</p> <p>4.4.2 Effect of temperature and pressure 75</p> <p>4.4.3 Effect of CO2 concentration 76</p> <p>4.4.4 Effect of agitation 77</p> <p>4.4.5 Effect of water content 77</p> <p>4.4.6 Effect of pressurization and depressurization rates 78</p> <p>4.4.7 Effect of pressure cycling 79</p> <p>4.4.8 Effect of microbial type 79</p> <p>4.4.9 Effect of initial microbial number 80</p> <p>4.4.10 Effect of physical and chemical properties of suspension 80</p> <p>4.4.11 Effect of culture conditions and growth phases 81</p> <p>4.4.12 Injured microorganisms 82</p> <p>4.4.13 Effect of combination processes 83</p> <p>4.4.14 Effect of type of system 83</p> <p>4.4.15 Treatment time and inactivation kinetics 84</p> <p>4.5 Mechanisms of microbial inactivation by DPCD 85</p> <p>4.5.1 Solubilization of CO2 under pressure into suspension 87</p> <p>4.5.2 Cell membrane modification 88</p> <p>4.5.3 Cytoplasmic leakage 88</p> <p>4.5.4 Intracellular pH decrease 89</p> <p>4.5.5 Key enzyme inactivation 90</p> <p>4.5.6 Inhibitory effect of molecular CO2 and HCO3 - on metabolism 90</p> <p>4.5.7 Intracellular precipitation and electrolyte imbalance 91</p> <p>4.5.8 Extraction of vital cellular constituents 91</p> <p>4.5.9 Physical cell rupture 92</p> <p>4.6 Characterization of CO2 states and survival curves 93</p> <p>4.7 Quantifying inactivation 96</p> <p>4.8 Conclusions 96</p> <p><b>5 Effects of Dense Phase Carbon Dioxide on Bacterial and Fungal Spores 99<br /> </b><i>Patricia Ballestra</i></p> <p>5.1 Introduction 99</p> <p>5.2 Inactivation of bacterial spores by DPCD 101</p> <p>5.2.1 Effect of temperature 101</p> <p>5.2.2 Effect of pressure 104</p> <p>5.2.3 Effect of pH and aw of the treatment medium 105</p> <p>5.2.4 Susceptibility of different bacterial spores 105</p> <p>5.2.5 Effects of combination treatments 106</p> <p>5.2.6 Mechanisms of bacterial spore inactivation 107</p> <p>5.3 Inactivation of fungal spores by DPCD 109</p> <p>5.4 Conclusion 112</p> <p><b>6 Effects of DPCD on Enzymes 113<br /> </b><i>Murat O. Balaban</i></p> <p>6.1 Introduction 113</p> <p>6.2 Effects of gas bubbling 118</p> <p>6.3 Alteration of the protein structure 118</p> <p>6.4 Studies with multiple enzymes 119</p> <p>6.5 Effects on specific enzymes 120</p> <p>6.5.1 Alpha-amylase 120</p> <p>6.5.2 Acid protease 121</p> <p>6.5.3 Alkaline protease 121</p> <p>6.5.4 Gluco-amylase 122</p> <p>6.5.5 Lipase 122</p> <p>6.5.6 Pectinesterase (PE) 124</p> <p>6.5.7 Pectin methyl esterase (PME) 125</p> <p>6.5.8 Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) 126</p> <p>6.5.9 Tyrosinase 129</p> <p>6.5.10 Lipoxygenase 130</p> <p>6.5.11 Peroxidase 131</p> <p>6.5.12 Alkaline phosphatase 133</p> <p>6.5.13 Myrosinase 133</p> <p>6.5.14 Hydrolases 134</p> <p>6.6 Conclusions and suggestions 134</p> <p><b>7 The Kinetics of Microbial Inactivation by Carbon Dioxide under High Pressure 135<br /> </b><i>Maria G. Corradini and Micha Peleg</i></p> <p>7.1 Introduction 135</p> <p>7.2 The survival curve 137</p> <p>7.2.1 Primary models 137</p> <p>7.2.2 Secondary models – the effect of pressure alone 141</p> <p>7.2.3 The temperature effect and that of other auxiliary factors 143</p> <p>7.2.4 Dynamic treatments 144</p> <p>7.3 Application of the models to published experimental data 147</p> <p>7.3.1 Primary model derivation 147</p> <p>7.4 Concluding remarks 151</p> <p>7.5 List of symbols 154</p> <p><b>8 Applications of DPCD to Juices and Other Beverages 157<br /> </b><i>Murat O. Balaban and Xiaojun Liao</i></p> <p>8.1 Introduction 157</p> <p>8.2 Juices processed with DPCD 158</p> <p>8.2.1 Orange juice 158</p> <p>8.2.2 Apple juice 162</p> <p>8.2.3 Mandarin juice 164</p> <p>8.2.4 Grapefruit juice 164</p> <p>8.2.5 Watermelon juice 165</p> <p>8.2.6 Coconut water 166</p> <p>8.2.7 Guava puree 167</p> <p>8.2.8 Grape juice 167</p> <p>8.2.9 Pear 170</p> <p>8.2.10 Carrot 170</p> <p>8.2.11 Carrot juice 171</p> <p>8.2.12 Peach 171</p> <p>8.2.13 Kiwi 172</p> <p>8.2.14 Melon 172</p> <p>8.3 Other beverages processed with DPCD 173</p> <p>8.3.1 Beer 173</p> <p>8.3.2 Kava kava 173</p> <p>8.3.3 Jamaica beverage 174</p> <p>8.4 Conclusions 175</p> <p><b>9 Use of Dense Phase Carbon Dioxide in Dairy Processing 177<br /> </b><i>Giovanna Ferrentino and Giovanna Ferrari</i></p> <p>9.1 Introduction 177</p> <p>9.2 Carbon dioxide in milk 178</p> <p>9.3 Enzymes and microorganisms in milk 178</p> <p>9.4 Application of carbon dioxide to milk 180</p> <p>9.4.1 Carbon dioxide addition to raw milk 180</p> <p>9.4.2 Carbon dioxide addition during thermal pasteurization of milk 183</p> <p>9.4.3 Effect of carbon dioxide addition on sensory properties of milk 184</p> <p>9.4.4 Dense phase carbon dioxide process 185</p> <p>9.5 Application of carbon dioxide for enzyme inactivation 186</p> <p>9.6 Application of carbon dioxide to cottage cheese production 188</p> <p>9.7 Application of carbon dioxide to yogurt and fermented products 189</p> <p>9.8 Application of carbon dioxide to casein production 190</p> <p>9.8.1 Casein properties 190</p> <p>9.8.2 Casein production by high-pressure carbon dioxide 191</p> <p>9.8.3 Comparison between continuous and batch systems for casein production by carbon dioxide 194</p> <p>9.8.4 Economic comparison between high-pressure carbon dioxide and a conventional process for casein production 196</p> <p>9.9 Conclusions 198</p> <p><b>10 Particle Engineering by Dense Gas Technologies Applied to Pharmaceuticals 199<br /> </b><i>Neil R. Foster, Raffaella Mammucari, Luu Thai Danh, and Wen Hui Teoh</i></p> <p>10.1 Introduction 199</p> <p>10.2 Dense gas as a solvent 201</p> <p>10.2.1 Rapid expansion of supercritical solutions 201</p> <p>10.2.2 Rapid expansion of supercritical solutions</p> <p>10.2.3 Rapid expansion of supercritical solutions with a nonsolvent 206</p> <p>10.2.4 Particles from gas-saturated solutions 207</p> <p>10.3 Dense gases as antisolvents 208</p> <p>10.3.1 Gas antisolvent process 209</p> <p>10.3.2 Aerosol solvent extraction system 211</p> <p>10.3.3 Solution-enhanced dispersion by supercritical fluids 216</p> <p>10.3.4 Atomized rapid injection for solvent extraction 218</p> <p>10.4 SCFs as co-solvents 220</p> <p>10.4.1 Depressurisation of an expanded liquid organic solvent 220</p> <p>10.5 Dense gases as aerosolisation aids (spray-drying assistance) 221</p> <p>10.5.1 Carbon dioxide–assisted nebulisation with a bubble dryer 221</p> <p>10.5.2 Supercritical fluid assisted atomisation 224</p> <p>10.6 Conclusion 225</p> <p><b>11 Industrial Applications Using Supercritical Carbon Dioxide for Food 227<br /> </b><i>James T.C. Yuan and John S. Novak</i></p> <p>11.1 Overview 227</p> <p>11.2 Past development 228</p> <p>11.3 Mechanism of microbial inactivation 229</p> <p>11.3.1 Effect of other gases on microbial inactivation 229</p> <p>11.4 scCO2 commercialization activities 230</p> <p>11.5 Porocrit process 230</p> <p>11.5.1 Impact on juice quality 232</p> <p>11.5.2 Impact on nutrient values 233</p> <p>11.5.3 Impact on microbial inactivation 233</p> <p>11.5.4 Impact on microbial inactivation for solid foods 236</p> <p>11.5.5 scCO2 processing efficiencies 237</p> <p>11.6 Conclusions 237</p> <p><b>12 Outlook and Unresolved Issues 239<br /> </b><i>Luc Van Ginneken, Linsey Garcia-Gonzalez, Kathy Elst, and Frank Devlieghere</i></p> <p>12.1 Introduction 239</p> <p>12.2 Unresolved issues 242</p> <p>12.2.1 Inactivation mechanism of DPCD 242</p> <p>12.2.2 Food quality and storage 250</p> <p>12.2.3 Target foods 252</p> <p>12.2.4 Process equipment and intellectual property 254</p> <p>12.2.5 Fouling, cleaning, and disinfecting 259</p> <p>12.2.6 Occurrence of DPCD-resistant mutants 261</p> <p>12.2.7 Industrial implementation and process economics 262</p> <p>12.3 Future outlook and conclusions 263</p> <p>12.4 Acknowledgements 264</p> <p>References 265</p> <p>Index 309</p>