Cover
Preface
1. Key Features
1 Phosphorous-Based Materials for K-Ion Batteries
1. 1.1 Introduction
2. 1.2 Principles of Potassium-Ion Batteries
3. 1.3 Conclusions
4. List of Abbreviations
5. References
2 Antimony-Based Electrodes for Potassium Ion Batteries
1. 2.1 Introduction
2. 2.2 Insight of Experimental Method
3. 2.3 KIB as Batteries
4. 2.4 Use of Antimony (Sb) Based K-Ion Batteries (KIB)
5. 2.5 DFT Studies
6. 2.6 Future Perceptive and Challenges
7. References
3 K-Ion Battery Practical Application Toward Grid-Energy Storage
1. 3.1 Introduction
2. 3.2 Intercalation Reaction
3. 3.3 Cathode Materials
4. 3.4 Anode Materials
5. 3.5 Electrolyte and Binder
6. 3.6 Conclusions
7. References
4 Mn-Based Materials for K-Ion Batteries
1. 4.1 Introduction
2. 4.2 Anode Material
3. 4.3 Cathode Materials
4. 4.4 Electrolyte
5. 4.5 Perspectives
6. 4.6 Conclusion
7. Acknowledgment
8. References
5 Electrode Materials for K-Ion Batteries and Applications
1. 5.1 Introduction
2. 5.2 Conclusions
3. References
6 Active Materials for Flexible K-Ion Batteries
1. 6.1 Introduction
2. 6.2 Flexible Prussian Blue
3. 6.3 Flexible Carbon Nanotube/Prussian Blue
4. 6.4 Flexible Film From the Trace of Pencil
5. 6.5 Flexible Carbon Nanofiber Mat
6. 6.6 Flexible SeS₂–Porous Carbon
7. 6.7 Flexible ReS₂–Nanofiber Carbon
8. 6.8 Conclusions
9. Acknowledgments
10. References
7 Hollow Nanostructures for K-Ion Batteries
1. 7.1 Introduction
2. 7.2 Current Scenario of Nanostructured Materials for K-Ion Batteries
3. 7.3 Hollow Nanostructure Based K-Ion Batteries
4. 7.4 Conclusion
5. References
8 Polyanion Materials for K-Ion Batteries
1. 8.1 Introduction
2. 8.2 Potassium-Ion Batteries
3. 8.3 Cathode Materials for Potassium-Ion Batteries
4. 8.4 Polyanionic Materials
5. 8.5 Polyanions as Cathode Material for Potassium-Ion Batteries
6. 8.6 Summary and Outlook
7. References
9 Fundamental Mechanism and Key Performance Factor in K-Ion Batteries
1. 9.1 Introduction
2. 9.2 Recognizing Potential Materials for Their Usage as a Cathode and Observing Their Storage Functionalities
3. 9.3 Aqueous Potassium-Ion Batteries
4. 9.4 Non-Aqueous Potassium-Ion Batteries
5. 9.5 Opportunities and Challenges
6. Acknowledgments
7. References
10 Fabrication of the Components of K-Ion Batteries: Material Selection and the Cell Assembly Techniques Towards the Higher Battery Performance
1. 10.1 Introduction
2. 10.2 Recent Materials Studied for Cathodes
3. 10.3 Anodes
4. 10.4 Electrolytes and Binders
5. 10.5 Conclusion and Future Perspective
6. Acknowledgment
7. References
11 MXenes for K-Ion Batteries
1. 11.1 Introduction
2. 11.2 Synthesis Method of MXene
3. 11.3 Structure and Electrochemical Properties of MXenes
4. 11.4 Summary and Outlook
5. Acknowledgments
6. References
12 Metal Sulfides for K-Ion Batteries
1. 12.1 Introduction
2. 12.2 Synthesis Approaches
3. 12.3 Structures, Properties, and K-Ion Battery Applications
4. 12.4 Summary and Outlook
5. Acknowledgments
6. References
13 Electrodes for Potassium Oxygen Batteries
1. 13.1 Introduction
2. 13.2 Categorization of Potassium Secondary Batteries
3. 13.3 Potassium−Oxygen Battery
4. 13.4 State-of-the-Art or Current Status
5. 13.5 Advancement in Rechargeable Alkali Metal–O₂ Cells
6. 13.6 Conclusion
7. Acknowledgment
8. References
14 Ti-Based Materials for K-Ion Batteries
1. 14.1 Introduction
2. 14.2 Titanium-Based Compounds
3. 14.3 Some Other Materials for KIBs Such as K₂Ti₈O₇ and K₂Ti₄O₉
4. 14.4 Promises and Challenges of KIBs
5. 14.5 Summary and Future Scenario
6. Acknowledgments
7. References
8. 14.6 Summary
9. Abbreviations
15 Newborn Electrodes for K-Ion Batteries
1. 15.1 Introduction
2. 15.2 Negative Electrode Materials
3. 15.3 Positive Electrode Materials
4. 15.4 Conclusions
5. List of Abbreviations
6. References
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1
1. Table 1.1 Physical and economic properties of lithium, sodium, and potassium.
2. Table 1.2 Summary of cathode materials for KIBs.
Chapter 2
1. Table 2.1 Advantages and shortcomings of potassium ion batteries.
2. Table 2.2 Bandgap electrode alloy Sb KIBs.
Chapter 3
1. Table 3.1 Several properties of elements (Li, Na, and K) [9, 10, 18, 19].
2. Table 3.2 Summary of cathode materials for potassium-ion batteries.
3. Table 3.3 Summary of anode materials for potassium-ion batteries.
Chapter 4
1. Table 4.1 Various properties and features of potassium, sodium, and lithium.
2. Table 4.2 Summary of the electrochemical performance and electrolytes used in...
Chapter 5
1. Table 5.1 Various battery inventions.
Chapter 7
1. Table 7.1 Electrochemical performance of various hollow nanostructured carbon...
Chapter 10
1. Table 10.1 List of cobalt-oxide based cathodes for KIBs and their fabrication...
2. Table 10.2 List of some of the manganese-based oxide cathodes for KIBs and th...
3. Table 10.3 List of some of the widely studied Cr-oxide based cathode material...
4. Table 10.4 List of some of the iron-based polyanions for cathode materials in...
5. Table 10.5 Vanadium based cathode materials for KIBs and effect of their fabr...
6. Table 10.6 List of some of the promising PB analogs for KIBs cathodes and the...
7. Table 10.7 List of some of the organic compounds based KIBs cathode materials...
8. Table 10.8 List of the anode materials for KIBs based on graphitic carbon, al...
9. Table 10.9 List of the non-graphitic anode materials and effects of their cel...
10. Table 10.10 List of titanium-based anode materials for KIBs and their cell pe...
11. Table 10.11 List of some of the dichalcogenides and vanadates based cathode m...
12. Table 10.12 List of some of the conversion anodes for KIBs and their electroc...
13. Table 10.13 List of some of the alloying anodes for KIBs and their electroche...
Chapter 14
1. Table 14.1 Various titanate based anode materials for KIBs and SIBs.
Chapter 15
1. Table 15.1 Recent anode materials for potassium-ion batteries.
2. Table 15.2 Electrochemical performance of the latest positive electrodes for ...

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1
1. Figure 1.1 Schematic of the KIBs operational principle and their charge/disc...
Chapter 2
1. Figure 2.1 Structure of KSb drawn using Vesta software (open source) [57] us...
2. Figure 2.2 Structure of K3Sb drawn using Vesta software (open source) [57] s...
3. Figure 2.3 Structure of K3Sb drawn using Vesta software (open source) [57] s...
4. Figure 2.4 K3Sb–FCC structure.
5. Figure 2.5 K3Sb–hexagonal structure.
6. Figure 2.6 KSb–monoclinic structure.
7. Figure 2.7 Sb₂O₃–orthorhombic (Pccn) structure.
8. Figure 2.8 Sb₂O₃–orthorhombic (Pbnm) structure.
9. Figure 2.9 Sb₂O₃–orthorhombic (Pnma) structure.
Chapter 3
1. Figure 3.1 The increasing number of literature of PIBs from 1999 to 2019.
2. Figure 3.2 Schematics of three different PIBs: (1) potassium-ion, (2) potass...
3. Figure 3.3 Schematic illustrations of various types of anodes and cathodes f...
4. Figure 3.4 The structure of different layered metal oxides: (a) P2-type K0.6...
5. Figure 3.5 Capacity measurement of (a) K_0.3MnO₂ [120], (b) K_0.7Fe_0.5Mn_0.5O₂ ...
6. Figure 3.6 (1) Structure of Prussian blue [134]. (2) Charge–discharge profil...
7. Figure 3.7 (1) Charge/discharge profile of Na₂Fe[Fe(CN)₆] and K₂Fe[Fe(CN)₆] ...
8. Figure 3.8 Different charge and discharge profiles of FeSO₄F in (1) lithium,...
9. Figure 3.9 Schematic illustration of (1) synthesis pathway, (2) TEM images, ...
10. Figure 3.10 (1) Electrochemical reaction process of PTCDA. (2) XRD pattern o...
11. Figure 3.11 (1) The first galvanostatic potassiation/depotassiation potentia...
12. Figure 3.12 (a) Charge/discharge profiles of a graphite electrode in PIBs; (...
13. Figure 3.13 (1) XRD analysis of the K₂Ti₈O₁₇; (2, 3) illustration of the K₂T...
14. Figure 3.14 Charge and discharge profiles of (1) Sb–C and (2) bulk Sb partic...
15. Figure 3.15 (1) The elements that can alloy with K, Na, and Li [200]. (2) Ca...
16. Figure 3.16 (1) Potassiation and depotassiation function in Sn₄P₃/C electrod...
17. Figure 3.17 (1) Synthesis pathway of K2TP [205]. (2) Electrochemical process...
18. Figure 3.18 Charge and discharge profiles of PVDF, PANa, and CMC electrolyte...
Chapter 4
1. Figure 4.1 (a) Lithium, sodium, and potassium in Earth’s crust in weight %, ...
2. Figure 4.2 Problems faced by potassium ion batteries.
Chapter 5
1. Figure 5.1 Comparison of battery technologies with volumetric and gravimetri...
2. Figure 5.2 Potassium ion battery (KIB).
3. Figure 5.3 Comparison of the different battery technologies in terms of ioni...
4. Figure 5.4 Various applications of K-ion batteries (a–d).
Chapter 6
1. Figure 6.1 (a) Illustrations of flexible KBs. (b) Photographs of flexible KB...
2. Figure 6.2 SEM images, flexibility, and transparent nature of the CNT/PB thi...
3. Figure 6.3 Synthesis and application of flexible carbon nano fiber mat as An...
4. Figure 6.4 (a) cyclic and (b) rate performances. (c) Areal capacitances. (d)...
5. Figure 6.5 SEM, TEM, EDS, XRD, and TGA of ReS2–CNF–N.
Chapter 7
1. Figure 7.1 Schematic diagram of a secondary cell.
2. Figure 7.2 (a) Abundance of Li, Na, and K. (b) Number of publications on ele...
3. Figure 7.3 Structure characterizations of N-doped carbon nanofibers (NCNF) b...
4. Figure 7.4 (a) SEM image of SiO₂@RF intermediate product. (b, c) SEM images ...
Chapter 8
1. Figure 8.1 Schematic illustration of the potassium-ion battery system contai...
2. Figure 8.2 The framework of the polyanions materials having NASICON A_xM₂(XO₄
3. Figure 8.3 The three-dimensional framework of rhombohedral NASICON and monoc...
4. Figure 8.4 The crystal structure of LiFePO₄ polyanion representing olivine s...
5. Figure 8.5 The framework of tavorite crystal structure showing the arrangeme...
6. Figure 8.6 The crystal framework of KMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, and Ni) viewed down ...
7. Figure 8.7 (a) The phase transformation undergoing in K₃V₂(PO₄)₂F₃ framework...
Chapter 10
1. Figure 10.1 Dendrite formation on K anodes as observed under scanning electr...
2. Figure 10.2 Potential profiles of Prussian blue analogs (Prussian white) upo...
3. Figure 10.3 Electrochemical performance of P2- type K_0.41CoO₂ based cell wit...
4. Figure 10.4 Electrochemical performance of P-2 type K_0.6CoO₂. (a) Charge/dis...
5. Figure 10.5 K ion storage performance of P3–K_0.3MnO₂ based cell−potential pr...
6. Figure 10.6 Electrochemical performance of P′3–Na_0.52CrO₂ in KFSI. (a) Charg...
7. Figure 10.7 Potential–capacity profiles of some of the widely studied K cath...
8. Figure 10.8 Electrochemical performance of CNT@graphitic carbon foam-based a...
9. Figure 10.9 Charge/discharge profile of carbon nanofiber (CNF) at 25 mA g⁻¹...
10. Figure 10.10 (a) and (b) SEM micrographs of nano cubic KTi₂(PO₄)₃, (c) TEM m...
11. Figure 10.11 (a) Capacity retention curves of KTi₂(PO₄)₃ and (b) KTi₂(PO₄)₃/...
12. Figure 10.12 Electrochemical performance of K_0.23V₂O₅ anode. (a) Charge/disc...
13. Figure 10.13 Electrochemical performance of Co₃O₄–Fe₂O₃/C based anodes in KI...
14. Figure 10.14 Comparative analysis of the potential–capacity profiles and cou...
15. Figure 10.15 Electrochemical performance of K₂TP anode with PPTS as the cath...
Chapter 11
1. Figure 11.1 (a) Early reported three different structures of MXenes (non-ter...
2. Figure 11.2 Schematic of the fabrication of M–NTO or M–KTO nanosheets. First...
3. Figure 11.3 Fabrication of a-Ti₃C₂ MNRs. (a) Schematic of synthesis of a-Ti₃
4. Figure 11.4 Schematic diagram showing the crystal structure of a Ti₃C₂ monol...
5. Figure 11.5 SEM images of (a and b) Ti₃C₂ MXene, (c and d) M-NTO, and (E and...
6. Figure 11.6 (a, b) TEM and (c) HRTEM images of Ti₃C₂ MXene. (c, d) TEM and (...
7. Figure 11.7 Electrochemical characterization of M–KTO for KIBs in 1.0 M KPF₆
8. Figure 11.8 Morphological characterization of a-Ti₃C₂ MNRs. (a) Low-magnific...
9. Figure 11.9 Electrochemical characterizations of a-Ti₃C₂ MNRs for KIBs. (a) ...
Chapter 12
1. Figure 12.1 (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis process of SnS₂@NC. ...
2. Figure 12.2 Schematic illustration of the synthesis process of SnS₂@C and Sn...
3. Figure 12.3 (a) Synthesis process, (b, c) SEM images, (d) TEM image, (e, f) ...
4. Figure 12.4 Schematic illustration of the two-step hydrothermal process for ...
5. Figure 12.5 Illustration of the synthesis strategy of uniformMoS₂ roses on r...
6. Figure 12.6 Schematic illustration of the synthesis process for CoS@G-25 com...
7. Figure 12.7 Schematic illustration of the synthetic procedure of the CS-CNTs...
8. Figure 12.8 Representative illustration of the synthetic process of multi-la...
9. Figure 12.9 (a) Schematic illustration for the synthesis of G@Y–S FeS₂@C com...
10. Figure 12.10 Schematic illustration of the synthetic procedure of the Ni₃S₂@...
11. Figure 12.11 TEM data for SnS₂–rGO: (a) SEM image of an area in the sample. ...
12. Figure 12.12 FESEM images of theMoS₂@rGO composite at different magnificatio...
13. Figure 12.13 (a) Discharge–charge profiles at cycle 2 and cycle 100. (b) Cyc...
14. Figure 12.14 (a) XRD patterns of Sb₂S₃ and Sb₂S₃@PPy nanorods. (b, c) FT-IR ...
15. Figure 12.15 Structural characterization and micromorphology of the Ni₃S₂@Ni...
Chapter 13
1. Figure 13.1 Next-generation batteries.
2. Figure 13.2 Categorization of K-secondary battery.
Chapter 14
1. Figure 14.1 The structure of a redox flow battery system.
Chapter 15
1. Figure 15.1 The number of publications on electrode materials for KIB in rec...
2. Figure 15.2 Overview on previous research advancement insight electrode mate...

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 9781119661399

Cover image: Russell Richardson
Cover design by Russell Richardson

Preface

Potassium-ion batteries have gained the most attention in emerging electrochemical energy storage technology of the future. Potassium-ion batteries have abundant resources and similar electrochemical behavior to lithium-ion batteries and thus can meet the needs of electrochemical energy storage applications. These batteries possess low cost, long cycle life, high energy density, safety, and reliability. The invention of potassiumion batteries came to the surface of energy storage research in 2004, over two decades after the revolutionary invention of lithium-ion batteries. Potassium-ion batteries are the potential alternative to lithium-ion batteries, fueling a new direction of energy storage research for many universities.

Potassium-ion Batteries: Materials and Applications explores the concepts, mechanisms, and applications of next-generation energy technology, potassium-ion batteries. Also, an in-depth overview of energy storage materials and electrolytes is presented in detail. This is the first book on this technology and serves as a reference guide for electrochemists, chemical engineers, students, research scholars, faculty, and R&D professionals who are working in electrochemistry, solid-state science, material science, ionics, power sources, and renewable energy storage fields. Based on thematic topics, the book contains the following 15 chapters:

Chapter 1 investigates the advantages of K-ion (KIB) batteries for storing and utilizing energy in large scales. Basic principles, theoretical aspects, different cathode materials, and their performances are described in this chapter. Furthermore, different previous studies about the performance of potassium-based materials in K-ion batteries as well as life cycle and other properties are discussed.

Chapter 2 reviews the literature on Sb doped KIB in the last 5 years and includes the concept of density of states for two structures.

Chapter 3 reviews the recent improvements of different components of K-ion battery practical application toward grid-energy storage. The different cathode, anode, electrolyte, and binder materials like layered metal oxides, Prussian blue analogs, polyanionic-based compounds, organic materials, carbon-based, and alloy-based materials are reviewed in addition to their advantages over other previous ones.

Chapter 4 covers a more detailed investigation of electrodes and electrolyte Mn-based materials for PIBs. The chapter explores the comprehensive study of Mn-based (single and multi-metal) layered cathode materials as well as prussian blue analogs in PIBs.

Chapter 5 reviews the literature on the use of organic electrodes for potassium-ion batteries.

Chapter 6 reviews the use of new smart materials to convert conventional potassium-ion batteries into flexible ones. The major emphasis is on reviewing the different design techniques along with new materials to achieve robust mechanical stability with flexible nature in flexible potassiumion batteries.

Chapter 7 discusses the current methods of synthesis and design of hollow nanostructured-based anodes for K-ion batteries (KIB). This chapter highlights recent progress in the design and synthesis, which enriches the electrochemical functions of K-ion cells. The role of metallic, as well as carbonaceous hollow nanostructures performances, are explained chronologically.

Chapter 8 discusses the employment of polyanions (fluorosulfates, phosphates, double phosphates, vanadyl phosphates, and vanadyl flouro-phosphates) as cathode electrode materials in potassium-ion battery applications. The unique three-dimensional framework and chemical properties of polyanions provide inductive effect, high de-potassiation potentials, thermal stability, and facile K⁺ ion diffusion pathways.

Chapter 9 discusses the fundamentals of developing KIBs, followed by some mechanistic aspects. The chapter explores recent developments in the electrode materials for KIBs. In addition to this, electrolytes and binders are discussed, limited to major kinds only. Last, challenges and perspectives are included.

Chapter 10 discusses the material developments for the electrodes, electrolytes, binders, and solvents used in potassium-ion batteries. The main focus is on the achievements made toward better performances and the associated challenges. The cell fabrication assembly techniques are highlighted for each coin cell together with their electrochemical performances.

Chapter 11 introduces the MXene and its derivative materials Ti₃C₂Tx MXene, K₂Ti₄O₉ (M-KTO), and alkalized Ti₃C₂ MXene nanosheets as promising electrode materials applied in K-ion batteries. Additionally, the preparation methods, structure properties, and electrochemical properties of MXene are analyzed. For the electrochemical evaluation, charge– discharge curve, rate capacity, coulomb efficiency, and life cycle of the MXene material are also discussed in detail.

Chapter 12 introduces the recent research progress of transition metal sulfides, including respective synthesis approaches and structure characteristics, which are discussed in detail. The performance and advantages of metal sulfides as the electrode materials for K-ion batteries are also demonstrated.

Chapter 13 discusses the current research on K−O₂ cell systems, important milestones along with the problems and potential of further improvement of alkali metal–air cells.

Chapter 14 discusses several cathode materials in terms of the electrochemical recital, structure, and synthesis, for example, K-storage mechanisms, working potential, and capacity. The chapter also comprises the current progressions of cathode materials for KIBs, causing many important features of KIBs.

Chapter 15 describes the cathode developments in potassium ion batteries. Different cathode materials are described in this chapter and different advantages as well as disadvantages are presented. Finally, this chapter summarizes recent studies and the latest progress in anode and cathode materials for K-ion batteries.

Key Features

Coverage on basic research and application approaches
Explores challenges and future directions of K-ion batteries
Outlines the influences of electrodes and electrolytes for enhanced performance
Includes all types of energy storage materials in a single volume

Editors
Inamuddin
Rajender Boddula
Abdullah M. Asiri